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<br />strong Jrgumerll_" dgainsl the use of Slcre0t\'pe:-.. a~-
<br />sumplions. or commitmenL~; sclf-censonhip enlorClllg
<br />conformllY; a shared illusion of h'F!h UfJJnHTIU" of
<br />JudgmenLs: and emergence of !'elf-appoillted "m"inrl-
<br />guard~." i.e., members who prOlen t.he h'TOUP trom
<br />contradiclOr,' daLa and views that mlglH quesuol1 lhe
<br />woup's assumptions and decisiom.
<br />To (ounter groupLhink. group memhcr~ mllSl
<br />question weak argumenl'.. call a hall lO ~Ofl-II(:~3dt'd
<br />thinking. demand compelling argumenL<; as lhe basi~
<br />for decIsions. bring up comro\'erslalls<;lles :-IS llee(k'J.
<br />and circum\'ent [he blind spo15 in [he persoll:ihue.... or
<br />decision maken. (jams 197~). Firsl, group le;jdc:rs
<br />should assign the role of '.(riueal c\"alllJ.lOr" 10 c.lch
<br />member, encouraging the airing of all o~jections and
<br />doubt". The group leader must reinforce [his and ac-
<br />cept criLicism of his O\\'n judgment to prc\'t:llt
<br />memocrs from "soft-pedaling" their dl.<;;]greemerH<;.
<br />~ec..ond. leC1ders should De impartial whell .<lssigllUlg ;1
<br />f)ohcy-plaIlIlJllg ITllssion to a group J.nd not state prel-
<br />t'1 t.:llce.s and expectations at me onSel. ThiS means. th:n
<br />leaders should make unbiC1sed descriptioll<; oj Ihe
<br />~(upe of the problem and resources a\'ail;.lblc and not
<br />.ad\'(x:ale procedures or products ~lie.\' would like IU
<br />see arlopted. .Members musl oper~He ill' an all.llospherL'
<br />01 open inquiry ::wo be encour;lged to cxplorc ;J \\.ide
<br />IJll~~e ()( ;dlL'rlltlLi..'cs Imr:tnially. Third, ilH' ~r'," .,.
<br />coahlion should rouLinely sel up se\'eraIIlH:kl'l'!I(J(,111
<br />planning and evaluauon groups lO \\'ork 011 the sallle
<br />questiuns in an of-'en cuma(e. each carrying oU[ iL<' de.
<br />liherauons under a different leader. Fourth. ill Slll"-
<br />\'('~'illg VJnom. ;JhernJ(j\'es, (he group should OCGISI(lIl-
<br />ally divide into 1\\'0 or more suLgroups. meel ~ep;]-
<br />rJlcly under different chainm:ll. LillO rejoin In resokt'
<br />differences. Fif(h, e;Jch member should openly e\al-
<br />uate and discuss (he group's deliberations \\'jth (ruslcd
<br />(j~so(i(tte~ and report reactions (() me group. Sixth.
<br />oUL"ide experts should be illvited 1O meeungs ::Jnd en-
<br />couraged to challenge we group's viel,\,'s, Seventh. at
<br />least olle m{"mbcr at every meeling should.bs' assigned
<br />Ult" role of "de\.irs advoca(e." Eigh(h. \\'hen"ever reb-
<br />Lions with orner organizauons are the focus of tlie
<br />issue or decision. considerable Lime should be spent
<br />surveying ;Ill the sign<tJs from-them and building alter-
<br />nati\'e scenarios of the intellljons of the other groups.
<br />r\inth, after reaching an iniLial consensus On me best
<br />policy ahernau\'e. the group should hold a "second-
<br />chJnce" meeLing. at .....hich Lime each memuer IS l.:;"'-
<br />peeled ro expres'\ residual doubL<; and 10 relhlllh. llll'
<br />entire lS<;lIe before making a final chOICe.
<br />
<br />PI0....:~,,:;~J.'e 1":.:;l:IUQ:;;I;l\3rl( C! Lonillc;
<br />
<br />The \\'ork of species reco\'ery mOl\' demand that
<br />
<br />~OI~:C Ji;~:ncjes Ch3.11Fl' Ult!lr StruClUle a~d sL:lndard
<br />upel aung procedures, Change ohen brings cOllfbn.
<br />and effecuve conflict mdnagt"mem is critical LO (011-
<br />structiw' ch;:mgt" (I:}ro\\'n 198:~)
<br />The literature on eonflin m;mdgelllem Includes
<br />several perspecuves, Some social scientists focus 011
<br />condilions lhat brillg aOOlll confhcl (c.g.. limited re-
<br />sources. divergelll inleresls). sOnle examine percep-
<br />lioll~ dnn feelings stemming from conflicl (e.g.. stereo-
<br />types. hoslilll\'. aIll.agunism). and others glve (lH{"llliOl,
<br />It) bch;winr (e.g.. clIven resistance. oven agg-ression).
<br />lJ[()\\'n (19tr~) focuses un ,he e1emenL'i of" conflict il...elf
<br />rather lh~Hl any of ils surroundIng circumstan(e~. He
<br />definc<; conflicl as "Hlcompa(ihle behavior bel\\'t'ell
<br />parlies whose in~eresl5 differ;' i.e., actions br. o:).~
<br />pany intended (0 oppose or frustrate the other party
<br />(l)ro\\'n 19S3. p. 5). Thi... includes imemjonC11 (jIld a<..ci-
<br />denL11 behavior. ann it \'aries in lype. focus. illlenSIl\'.
<br />;1Il0 Irt'LjuellC\ \t:.g.. rallt-,'lllg from pas~i\'e bel.:. 01 SIJP'
<br />l)tln 10 <tggre....~1\"t' \loknce). Inwrests "r<:ft'r 10 rCLug-
<br />mzed ~1Il0 llllrn(),l,'l\lzed stc1.h.t.:~ ,kll arc alfected in' lilt'"
<br />illu.:r:1(liulI of panil.:s" (I1w\\ II 19.':U. p. --I.). \Vhen
<br />m~jor pn::~<;llre<, sllrLtcc, p:..nue.<; ma\' redefine (hell' ill-
<br />lere..,L'i anJ :iller [heir bL"ha\'iur, In .species reco\'er.\.
<br />\\'here m<trl)" org:ll"liz.arHJIls, P:lfticirr.:'Itt'." imerests v..lr~
<br />;:mo confliCl is int"\'It~lhk.
<br />R_:u_hcr tll;'!/l foc.I:,in; nil IIl(jl\"ldu:ds, the in(erf;-!Cc
<br />lx.:lwCC'1l llllit~ is (he dimell\JOll deserving C111entlon
<br />(Hro\\"ll 1983). lnlerfdccs tocu<; conflict because (hey
<br />..JI"e .... here v.anous interesLS meet and SOCilil UIlILS 111-
<br />{Cr,lCl. Cualiu(lll'o. esp<.:ciaIJ}" tho<,l' created in re~p()ll~l'
<br />to elloangt..'l eel ~pecies t;lsb. ~iJe full of inlerf<lces. fOlll
<br />or which a.re n:cognil.cd by Blown (1983): (I) orgalli-
<br />I_;u.ionlil interLlCes bctween dlscn'tc orgallilalions; (2)
<br />cullural inlerfaces between dlffnenl organiz.auoll<tl
<br />cultures and su'ocuhure!:> (e,g,. researchers' managers.
<br />and adminislrators); (3) le\'el Intcrfaces be,\\.'een. dif-
<br />ferent career le\'els (e.g.. managers I1ltty idemif)' \\.jth
<br />Olher managers, workers \\'ith mher \\'orkers); and (4)
<br />deparunent;il IIJ(t'r!;lces oelhcell different deparl-
<br />mem.s,
<br />Conflict occun 'J,.t. these ill1erf(jces because of great
<br />differences in 11ISl(lr~. cllilure and ideolobrics. goal5.
<br />strategies. and resources [hat are brought together in
<br />man~' recov(:'ry plograllls. 111 all siwations, conflict
<br />must Oe prodllClivel~' n1(jllag{'d, Conflict is b<ld onl~
<br />\...hen it is di<;rupu\'e. Negati\'e outcomes arisf" ""hen
<br />tllen.' is (O<J much cunflict (e,g" when conflicl is esca-
<br />Iate.d lO open am.agonism and hostility resulting ill di...-
<br />toned informalion [[0\\'<;. kl\\'"quaIIlY decision making.
<br />..,,1 ~'1Jf,,',i-I~.(~ :'("T~hl:"'\~'~:l), (,.- \.:l,....;! 11!p:~ i~ !(>() liltlt"
<br />.....uniIH.{ (e.g., lHlle..: t'IItTg~ IS nI0l.Jlill.ed, U;t:-I-:t:l.:. prt.-
<br />vent disagreement or sharing of contrO\'ersial infor-
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