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<br />50 BIOLOGICAL REPORT 85(1.23)
<br />In aquatic systems research is needed in sev-
<br />eral areas: (1) long-term effects of cyanide on life
<br />cycles, growth, survival, metabolism, and behavior
<br />of a y^riety of aquatic organisms and microorgan-
<br />isms inaddition to fish (Towill et al. 1978; Leduc et
<br />a1.1982 ); (2) effects of seasonal pulses of cyanide on
<br />aquatic organisms in rural and wilderness areas
<br />(Leduc 1984); (3) influence of various environ-
<br />mental parameters (e.g., oxygen, pH, tempera-
<br />ture), if any, on adaptive resistance to cyanide
<br />(Leduc 1981, 1984); and (4) usefulness of various
<br />biochemical indicators of cyanide poisoning, such
<br />as cvtochrome oxidase inhibition (Gee 1987) and
<br />vitellogenin levels in fish plasma (Ruby et al.
<br />1986).
<br />The use of M-44 sodium cyanide capsules for
<br />predator control was suspended and cancelled by
<br />the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency on
<br />9 )•4rch 1972. M-44 use was again permitted by
<br />the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency begin-
<br />ning on 9 February 1976, provided that "each
<br />authorized or licensed applicator shall carry an an-
<br />tidote kit on his person when placing or inspecting
<br />M-44 devices. The kit shall contain at least 6 pearls
<br />of amylnitrite and instructions on their use. Each
<br />authorized or licensed applicator shall also carry
<br />on his person instructions for obtaining medical
<br />assistance in the event of accidental exposure to
<br />sodium cyanide" (EPA 1976a, 1976b).
<br />Farmers need to be aware of factors that influ-
<br />encethe cyanogenic potential offorage crops and to
<br />conduct regular inspections of grazing Gelds for
<br />cyanogenic plants. Moreover, hay and silage
<br />should be properly cured in order to minimize cya-
<br />nide content before feeding to livestock (Egekeze
<br />and Oehme 19801. Selective breeding of plants
<br />with low• cyanide content will help reduce livestock
<br />poisoning, but the most advisable prevention
<br />method at present is to prohibit grazing on fields
<br />where cyanogenic plants are present (Egekeze and
<br />Oehme 1980). More research seems needed on (1)
<br />effects of drought and other factors that may in-
<br />crease the concentration of cyanogenic glycosides
<br />in livestock forage plants, (2) mechanisms of cya-
<br />nide liberation b}• plants, and (3) effects of cyanide
<br />on wildlife and range animals that graze on foliage
<br />with high cyanogenic glycoside content (Towill et
<br />al. 19781.
<br />Research is needed on low-level, long-term
<br />cyanide intoxication in mammals by oral and inha-
<br />lation routes in the vicinities of high cyanide con-
<br />centrations, especially on the incidence of skin
<br />dermatitis, nasal lesions, and thyroid dysfunction,
<br />and on urit~ar}• thiocyanate concentrations. T}~ese
<br />types of studies may provide a more valid rationale
<br />in establishing standards and thees}told limit val-
<br />ues for HCN and inorganic cyanide (Towill et al.
<br />1978; Egekeze and Oehme 1980).
<br />Data are scarce on the carcinggenic, terato-
<br />genic,and mutagenic properties of cyanide, and on
<br />the distribution and transformation of cyanides in
<br />air, land, or water. Additional analy9is of available
<br />information and more research in these areas is
<br />recommended. Finally, more resear~ is needed on
<br />cyanide toxicokinetics because cyanide is a very re-
<br />active nucleophile that distributes widely through
<br />the body, is permeable to cell membr;xnes, and may
<br />accumulate in the fetus (Towill et al. 1978).
<br />Acknowledgments
<br />I thank L. Garrett, N. Hestbeck~ and W. Man-
<br />ning for literature search and retrieval services;
<br />M. Holmes and B. Roberts for secretarial assis-
<br />tance; D. R. Clark, Jr., C. J. Henny, J. B. Hunn,
<br />and G. C. Miller for technical review of the manu-
<br />script; and J. R. Zuboy for editorial 6ervices.
<br />References
<br />Abel, P. D., and S. M. Garner. 1986. Comparison of me-
<br />dian survival times and median lethal exposure times
<br />for Gammarus pulcz exposed to cadmipm, permethrin
<br />and cvanide. Water Res. 20:579-582.
<br />Adams, J. B. 1985. Inhibition ofgreen bean lipoxygenase
<br />by cyanide. Food Chem. 31:243-250.
<br />Alabaster, J. S., D. G. Shurbcn, and M. J. Mallets. 1983.
<br />The acute lethal toxicity of mixtures of cvanide and
<br />ammonia to smolts of salmon, Salmo solar L. at low
<br />concentrations of dissolved oxygen. J. Fish Biol.
<br />22:215-222.
<br />A]etor, V. A., and B. L. Fetuga. 1988. The interactive ef-
<br />fects oflima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) trypsin inhibi-
<br />tor, hemag~lutinin and cyanide on some hepatic
<br />dehydrogenases,orni[hinecarbamoyl{ransferaseand
<br />intestinal disaccharidases in weanling rats. Vet.
<br />Hum. Toxicol. 30:540-544.
<br />Allen, C. H. 1990. Mitigating impacts to wildlife at FMC
<br />Gold Company's Paradise Pcak mine. Pages 67-71 in
<br />Proceedings of the Nevada wildlife/ mining workshop,
<br />2 ~-29 March 1990, Reno. Nev. Available from Nevada
<br />Mining Assoc.. 3940 Spring Drive. Reno, Nev. 89502.
<br />Alstrom. S.. and R. G. Burns. 1989. Cvariide production
<br />by rhizobacteria as a possible mechanism of plant
<br />growth inhibition. Biol. Fert. Soils 7:232-238.
<br />Azcon-Bieto, J., J. Murillo, and J. Penuelas. 1961. Cya-
<br />nide-resistant respiration in photosynthetic organs of
<br />freshwater aquatic plaints. Plant Physlol.84:707-706.
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