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united States (Gebhards 1975). Not only do reservoirs create new en- vironments for fish but the habitat and water conditions are affected downstream (Bureau of Reclamation 1975; Cramer and 01i- gher 1964; Fraser 1972b; Gebhards 1975; Green 1974; Lehmkuhl 1972; Liscom 1971; Mullan et al 1976; Neel 1963; Schweibert 1977; Spence and Hines 1971a; Spence and Hines 1971 b; Turner 1971; Wiltzius 1976; von Gunten 1961). The problems associated with dams and associated activities were well documented for the Columbia River salmon and steelhead (Schweibert 1977). The effects of impoundments on water quality was summarized by Symonds et al (1964). The supersaturation of water with gases from reservoir operations and the resulting gas- bubble disease in fish was summarized by Rucker (1972). Mining Mining is an extraction process that disrupts terrestrial and aquatic environ- ments (Atwood 1975; Boccardy and Spauld- ing 196B; Clarke 1974; Garrison et al. 1976; Grim and Hill 1974; Hill 1974; Keefer and Hadley 1976; Pratt and Brobst 1974; Smith 1939; Spaulding and Ogden 196B; u.S. Depart- ment of the Interior 1974, 1976, 1977). Much of the mining in the United States will be done to develop energy in this country (.~end 1975; Energy Policy Project 1974; Joint Committee on ~tomic Energy 1973; Mihursky and Cronin 1973). Natural energy resources are needed and must be used wisely by the people of this and other countries since the energy crisis is real. The past uses of energy in the United States were compared to energy type, form of use and efficiency of use in a report by the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (1973). Some of the energy problems that are facing the United States are a result of a long his- tory of neglect and oversight (Energy Policy Project 1974). Indeed, the greatest chal- lenge ever faced by natural resource mana- gers may result from the impacts of energy development on fish and wilclife and other natural resources (Amend 1975). Surface mining has the greatest impact on fish and wildlife resources (Spaulding and Ogden 196B). Coal mining accounted for 41% of surface mining in the U.S. in 1965 and, when combined with sand, gravel, and stone, this mining accounted for 75% of the surface disturbance (Fig. 5; Kimmel and Sharpe 1976). Mining affects the biologi- cal, chemical, and physical characteristics of water by changing streamflows and alter- ing water quality by acid and alkaline mine drainage, heavy metals, sediments, and wa- ter temperature. Only 7% of the Mountain states of Montana, Idaho, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico, and only 4% of the Pacific states of Washington, Oregon, and California were included in the 1.3 million hectares (3.2 million acres) that were affected by surface mining in the United States in the 1965 survey (Spaulding and Ogden 196B). The United States contains 40% of the world's coal resources that are expected to playa major role in meeting short and long-term energy needs (Amend 1975). The coal reserves in the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, U1ah, New Mexi- co and Arizona in 51B,000 km (200,000 mi2) will probably be the major energy source for the rest of the century (Amend 1975). The western states also contain oil, natural gas, oil shale, and geothermal re- sources that will be developed to meet the nation's needs. Recently, problems and research priorities concerning the environ- ment in the Rocky Mountain region were addressed by a large group of managers and scientists (Neuhold et al. 1975). The in- creasing demand for water that will include energy development and current supplies were summarized by Morton and Stamm (1975), Utah Water Research Laboratory (1975), Wa- ter Resources Council (196B), and Water Recources Council (1971). Certainly, mining and evergy development will be extremely important in the western states for some time into the future. Dredging Urbanization contributes sediments in- to streams and rivers at rates that may approach 20,000 to 40,000 times the erosion rate from forest and agricultural practices (U.S. Geological Survey 1974). The larger rivers and harbors in the Great Lakes are dredged to keep navigational channels open in fresh water. It has been estimated that more than $100 million is lost in reservoir capacities each year from the deposition of stream-borne sediments (U.S. Geological Survey 1974). Harbors and navigational channels in the estuaries and coastal zone are filling with alluvial sand, silt, and clay that requires the dredging of 230 million m3 of sediments annually (Horton 1977). These fine sediments form biologi- cal deserts for aquatic life since they are unstable. In addition, the sediments that are dredged from areas near large cities often contain heavy metals, organics, pes- ticides, and other chemicals that are toxic to aquatic life. The effect of sediments on freshwater life will be covered more fully under the section on "Water Quality". The U.S. Geological Survey (1974) has stat- ed that the sediment control measures will add to the cost of development but these costs may be considerably less than the potential damage to streams. Intelligent and effective land-use planning can reduce the problems associated with sediments, dredging, and disposition of dredge spoils. Agricultural Practices Agricultural irrigation accounts for 46% of the total water use in the United States and 60% of this amount is consumed during use (BishOp 1971). The 40% that is not used returns to streams containing fine sediments, pesticides, herbicides and other chemicals. Salinity is a major prob- lem in the Colorado River with about 10 millions tons of total dissolved solids 62