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01nJ17 with a 43-degree annual average. Wind is common in winter, reducing snow accumulation generally to drift areas and moving soil in disturbed sites. Precipitation increases with elevation. The west side averages 20 inches annually, distributed more evenly throughout the year and with deeper snow accumulations in winter. The average temperature at Grand Lake is 35 degrees Fahrenheit. The alpine tundra, above 11,500 feet, has more severe weather conditions with low temperatures year around, high winds and higher precipitation. Thunder showers are common in the Summer while in winter precipitation falls as snow, but wind action gen- erally scours large areas free. Three vegetation zones are present. The upper montane is the lowest, occupying from 7,600 to 9,000 feet elevation. The south exposures main- tain a Ponderosa pine/shrub vegetation type, usually with an open canopy and a well developed understory of the bitterbrush/mountain muhly com- munity. In some of the larger openings with better soil development a big sagebrush/sedge community is dominant. On the more exposed sites a grassland type is common, characterized by mountain muhly, needle-and- thread, June grass, and blue grama. On north exposures and ridges a closed canopy forest community dominated by Ponderosa pine, Douglas fir, and scattered lodgepole pine is common. At higher elevations the lodge- pole may form almost pure stands. Portions of Specimen Mountain, West Creek, and Paradise Park, lying with- in the primitive areas of the park, are managed as research natural areas. Establishment of these areas is coordinated with a world-wide system of natural areas for scientific and educational purposes established by the International Biological Program. Here, natural processes are allowed to predominate and act as important baselines against which man-caused changes elsewhere can be measured. All of the research natural areas will be included within wilderness (see page 15). In the valley bottoms the vegetation is related to the moisture availa- bility and past disturbance. Large, formerly cultivated, areas are still dominated by timothy, smooth brome, or Kentucky bluegrass. Other common species are hairgrass, reflexed bluegrass and red-top. The marshy areas are occupied by a Canadian reed-grass/water sedge community. On some sites a willow type characterized by willow, bogbirch, and alder are common. Along streams and other mesic sites, aspen and narrow-leafed cottonwood may be present. The upper montane zone forms the primary winter range for the large elk (estimated at 1,000) and deer (estimated at 350) populations. Other characteristic mammals are yellow-bellied marmot, Richardson's ground squirrel, golden mantled ground squirrel, Abert's squirrel, and the bea- ver. The coyote and badger are common predators. Characteristic birds are the robin, magpie, Stellar's jay, and red-tailed hawk. 14