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offshore oil platforms, pipelines, and dams. The cost of cleanup must also be included (Figure 3). All other landslide costs are considered to be indirect. Examples of indirect costs given by Schuster and Fleming (1986) include: (1) reduced real estate values, (2) loss of productivity of agricultural or forest lands, (3) loss of tax revenues from properties devalued as a result oflandslides, (4) costs of measures to prevent or mitigate future landslide damage, (5) adverse effects on water quality in streams, (6) secondary physical effects, such as landslide-caused flooding, for which the costs are both direct and indirect, (7) loss of human productivity due to injury or death. Other examples are: (8) fish kills, (9) costs oflitigation. In addition to economic losses, there are intangible costs of lands Ii ding such as personal stress, reduced quality oflife, and the destruc- tion of personal possessions having great sen- timental value. Because costs of indirect and intangible losses are difficult or impossible to calculate, they are often undervalued or ignor- ed. If they are taken into account, they often produce highly variable estimates of damage for a particular incident. Figure 2. Major damage to homes in Farmington, Utah as a result of 1983 Rudd Creek mudslide (photograph by Robert Kistner, Kistner and Associates). Figure 3. Local volunteers form "bucket brigade" to help clean mud and debris from homes in Farmington, Utah in 1983 (photograph by Robert Kistner, Kistner and Associates). Long-Term Benefits of Mitigation Studies have been conducted to estimate the potential savings when measures to minimize the effects oflandsliding are applied. One early study by Alfors et al. (1973) attempted to fore- cast the potential costs of landslide hazards in California for the period 1970-2000 and the effects of applying mitigative measures. Under the conditions of applying all feasible measures at state-of-the-art levels (for the 1970s), there was a 90 percent reduction in losses for a bene- fit/cost ratio 01'8.7:1, or $8.7 saved for every $1 spent. Nilsen and Turner (1975) estimated that approximately 80 percent of the landslides in Contra Costa County, California are related to human activity. In Allegheny County, Penn- sylvania, 90 percent are related to such activity according to Briggs et al. (1975). Because most landslides triggered by man are directly related to construction activities, appropriate grading codes can significantly decrease landslide losses in urban areas. Slos- son (1969) compared landslide losses in Los Angeles for those sites constructed prior to 1952, when no grading codes existed and soils engineering and engineering geology were not required, with losses sustained at sites after such codes were enacted. He found that the monetary losses were reduced by approximat- ely 97 percent. 5