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<br />Urban Conservation <br /> <br />Despite droughts, recession and natural disasters, <br />California's urban population continues to grow. And <br />population growth means increasing demand for <br />water by urban areas, where most of California's <br />population is concentrated. Like their counterparts <br />in the state's rural areas, urban Californians have <br />responded to the conservation challenge in a number <br />of innovative ways. <br /> <br />Most of the developed water in California is gener- <br />ated in the northern part of the state. Southern <br />California, in particular, relies heavily on water <br />imported from other parts of the state and tram the <br />Colorado River. While much of this water eventually <br />is discharged to the ocean where it is not recover- <br />able, urban water suppliers in southern California <br />have undertaken major efforts in recent years to <br />increase their reuse of treated wastewater either for <br />landscaping or groundwater recharge. <br /> <br />Water experts recommend <br />using a shur-ojJvalve on <br />the hose when washing <br />1he car to sm'e wate!: <br /> <br />Agencies that supply water for urban uses are <br />worried about a gap between supply and demand <br />and they see conservation as one way to narrow <br />the gap. Some urban water districts also candidly <br />admit that conservation pays political dividends by <br />showing them as responsible stewards of a valu- <br />able resource and is a good customer relations tool. <br />However, they acknowledge that conservation steps <br />taken today may make it harder to ask customers to <br />save even more water in future droughts. This phe- <br />nomenon, known as demand hardening, also could <br /> <br /> <br />11 <br /> <br />make additional conservation steps more expensive. <br />Some dispute the validity of demand hardening. <br />however, saying there is plenfy of water to be saved <br />if current practices are changed. <br /> <br /> <br />Most of the punitive water saving measures imposed <br />during the 1987-1993 drought have been lifted. but <br />many conservation steps initiated during shortage <br />periods have become institutionalized among urban <br />users. Millions of ultra-low-flush toilets and low-flow <br />showerheads have been installed in recent years, <br />and business and industry have joined efforts to <br />conserve water in their operations. <br /> <br />Debate continues in water circles about the most <br />effective way to promote urban water conservation. <br />Some favor mandatory changes to building codes <br />and local ordinances to require installation of water <br />efficient plumbing fixtures and landscape irrigation <br />equipment. Others believe the best approach is to <br />use price signals by putting individual households <br />on water budgets. rewarding them if they stay under <br />their budgets but penalizing them with higher wafer <br />costs when they exceed them. However, the water <br />budget approach only works where water use is <br />metered. Over 90 percent 01 residences and <br />businesses are metered in California, but some <br />communities do not have water meters and custom- <br />ers are charged a flat fee for their water no matter <br />how much is used. <br /> <br />The two biggest uses of water in the urban setting <br />are landscape irrigation and sanitation. which are <br />the focus of most conservation activities. Many water <br />districts that serve urban areas are aggressively <br />promoting efforts to conserve water in those two <br />areas. <br /> <br />BATHROOM FIXTURES <br /> <br />Two cornerstones of California's efforts to reduce <br />sanitation water use are ultra-low-flush toilets and <br />low-flow showerheads and faucets. The 1976-1977 <br />drought resulted in enactment of legislation requir- <br />ing low-flush toilets (3.5 gallons per flush) fhat are <br />credited with cutting residential water use by 23 <br />percent between 1 972 and 1990. State law since <br />1992 has required all toilets sold in California to use <br />no more than 1.6 gallons of water per flush, and all <br />urinals to use no more than 1.0 gallons per flush. <br />The ultra-low-flush toilets use less than one-fourth <br />to one-half the amount of water used by older <br />fixtures. Ultra-low-flush toilets are required to be <br />installed in all new construction, but not in existing <br />homes. By 1996. about 5 percent of the estimated <br />