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40 Foreign Nonindigenous Carps and Minnows (Cyprinidae) in the U.S.-A Guide to their Identification the head, caudal peduncle, fin rays, and the scales below (less frequently above) the lateral line (Balon, 1995; Barus and others, 2001). When present on females, breeding tubercles only occur on the head (Balon, 1995). Coad (2005) indicated that females are deeper-bodied than males, and also noted sexual differences in fin height and length. Similar Species The long dorsal fin includes a strong, serrated spine- like ray followed by 15 or more branched rays. This characteristic distinguishes it from most native North American cyprinids, which typically have fewer than 11 rays and usually lack the spine-like ray. The Common Carp has two barbels on each side of the head near the posterior end of the upper jaw. This characteristic distinguishes it from Crucian Carp and Goldfish, which lack barbels. Gerlach (1983) listed characteristics that distinguish the larvae of Goldfish from the Common Carp. Variation A wide geographic range in combination with a long history of culture and artificial selection has given rise to a number of varieties of Common Carp. Thus, the species exhibits a wide variation in meristic and morpho- logical characteristics (appendix B). Barus and others (200 I) recognized and provided a key for three subspe- cies: Cyprinus carpio carpio (European and Central Asian Common Wild Carp), Cyprinus carpio haematop- tents (East Asian Common Wild Carp), and Cyprinus carpio viridiviolaceus (Southeast Asian Wild Carp). The number, size, and coverage of scales is variable, especially among domesticated groups. Based on scale patterns, at least four basic forms of Common Carp are recognized (Brylinska, 1986, in Barus and others, 2001). However, common names associated with these forms are sometimes inconsistently applied (for example, Tave, 1988; Howells, 1999): I. Scaled Carp with regular, imbricating scales over the entire body, much like the ancestral wild Common Carp. The large, cycloid scales of the Scaled Carp are pigmented along their posterior edges, producing a reticulated effect (fig. 26); 2. Mirror Carp with irregular rows of very large scales (fig. 27); 3. Leather or Naked Cmp either with no scales or few, very large scales (fig. 28). 4. Line Carp with a regular single mid-lateral row of scales and elsewhere none or only a few scales (not illustrated); Coloration is highly variable. Wild strains are generally brassy to yellowish, with lower fins often yellow-orange; however, considerable variation occurs among cultured varieties. Nishikigoi ornamental carp strains (popularly called "Koi") were developed in Japan over the last two centuries (Balon, 1995), and may be red, white, gold, black or variegated (fig. 29). Natural hybrids of the wild Common Carp and the Crucian Carp are often found where the two species co-occur (Banarescu, 1964; Berg, 1964; Lin and Peter, 1991; see appendix B for meristics). The Common Carp naturally hybridizes with Goldfish both in native regions, such as Romania (Banarescu, 1964) and the Czech Republic (Prokes and Barus, 1996) and where they are introduced, such as Canada (Taylor and Mahon, 1977), Australia (Hume and others, 1983), and Ohio (Trautman, 1981). Meristics for Common Carp X Goldfish hybrids are given in appendix B. Common Carp has been artificially hybridized with Grass Carp (Makeyeva and Verigin, 1974a; Stanley and Jones, 1976; Avault and Merowsky, 1978), Bighead Carp (Makeyeva, 1968, 1972; Verigin and Makeeva, 1974), Silver Carp (Makeyeva, 1968; Makeyeva and Verigin, 1974b), and Tench (Victorovsky, 1966). Crossbreeding of Common Carp with other cyprinids is reviewed in Schwartz (1972, 1981). The Common Carp is not known to hybridize with any cyprinids native to North America. Reproduction Males first spawn at an age of about 3 years, after attaining a length of 36 em SL and weight of 1 kg (Berg, 1964). Maximum fecundity has been estimated from 2-7 million eggs (Barus and others, 2001; Moyle, 2002; Coad, 2005). The Common Carp is a batch spawner (Balon, 1995), releasing its adhesive eggs over vegetation. Reported minimum temperatures for commencement of spawning vary (10-12 oC, Berg, 1964; 13-16 oC, Banarescu, 1964; 16.5 oC, Lubinski and others, 1986; 18 oC, Balon, 1995). In its native range, the species reportedly prefers to spawn during periods of high water over freshly flooded meadows at sites where the water depth is 25-50 em (Berg, 1964; Balon, 1995). Wild carp have also been reported to spawn along the coasts of islands situated in lakes (Kazancheev, 1981, in Barus and others, 2001), and in estuaries along the coastline where the water is shallow and aquatic plants