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than just "target" species. Alandscape-
<br />wide perspective is in order, involving
<br />concepts of ecosystem integrity, diver-
<br />sity, and the connectedness of cridca]
<br />habitats and food webs. Longitudinally,
<br />streams and their riparian zones are
<br />corridors, connecting many pare of
<br />the landscape. Trans•v~erse to the stream
<br />course, one finds across-sectional di-
<br />versity anti intergraciing of moisuless,
<br />land ft~nns, soils, and veget~~ttion.
<br />The. importance of vegetation to
<br />stream and streambank characteristics
<br />is well recognized. Particularly crucial
<br />is the role of large woody debris: the
<br />logs, root wads, and other major ele-
<br />rue.nts that jam up in useful ways, shap-
<br />ing and stabilizing channels, tying
<br />su•eam beds together, acrd trapping
<br />gr•ave'I and other sediments so as to
<br />promote proper functioning of the
<br />stream ecosystem. ~1-atersheds may be
<br />the most workable geographic units for
<br />managing this, rather than just asueam
<br />or lake.
<br />Landscapes and vv~ttersheds are hard
<br />to work v+ith. They are large, complex,
<br />and often contain lots of people, hav-
<br />ing diverse values and ownerships. l~iany
<br />watershed programs have faltered and
<br />faded away. But others have succeeded,
<br />and we should keep working with that
<br />approach. The landscape concept
<br />should be useful in keeping abroad-
<br />based resource focus in our work.
<br />?Managing for cfiversih• and complex-
<br />iri• is also difficult because our under=
<br />standing of what constitutes useful
<br />di+et:~ih is still fuzzy. ~h~e know that not
<br />.lustany'diversitywill do. rtsv-~triousecolo-
<br />gists have pointed out, rru~zrraldiversity
<br />in :tit assemblage of native species has
<br />useful order; itmav usualh~ be disadvan-
<br />tageous in the long rnu to replace this
<br />with an even greatercliyersin~composed
<br />of a hodgepodge of exotics.
<br />Also, Nantre's complexity will be re-
<br />garded by many as inconveniently
<br />"nu~ssv" and confitsing. A_s Aldo Leopold
<br />pointed out the complexin~ is greater
<br />than we could ever understand. But vve
<br />should keep working at ciiversit< anti
<br />complexity because this tack holds
<br />promise of permitting full nantral fiutc-
<br />tion arrd may hold open the most op-
<br />tions. The more options you have at
<br />ycxn• disposal, fire greater your likeli-
<br />hood of controlling lxo}alems.
<br />Especially where human ownership
<br />of land is not complex, the concept of
<br />Inrrdsca~~e reserves may be useful in pre-
<br />servingand restoring certain fish stocks
<br />in conjunction with other biological re-
<br />sources. Such protected natural areas
<br />would have to be large enough to en-
<br />compass ecological and genetic diver-
<br />sity. again, watersheds may be the
<br />practical scale.
<br />As mentioned, ecological fishery
<br />management should not. only have a
<br />more comprehensive view, but also be
<br />more specific. The specificity can in-
<br />volve closer analysis of the local causes
<br />of problems before managing-identi-
<br />f}ing the root of each major habitat
<br />problem. Treannent can be
<br />more focused on basic causes
<br />and more tailored to local The
<br />needs, rather than being the
<br />routine application of tech-
<br />niques, such as annual
<br />stocking quotas, statewide
<br />uniformity of fishing regula-
<br />tions, and cookbook habitat
<br />work.
<br />in advocating "biodiversity
<br />management" on federal
<br />lands, Jack E. ~~1'illiams (Bu- Conn
<br />reau of Land Itianagement)
<br />andJohn l~. Rinne (L~.S. For=
<br />est Service) advocate that the primary
<br />objective be ecosystem integrity, Chat
<br />planning and management. be on an
<br />ecosystem or watershed basis, and that
<br />++•e manage for basic ecosystem processes.
<br />They mention processes ofenergy. water
<br />and nutrients, and recommend taking
<br />into account that natural disturbances,
<br />such as floods, fires and droughts help
<br />maintain natural communities anti
<br />therefore should be protected. They
<br />also recommend that management be
<br />evaluated.
<br />Although based on thorough under=
<br />standing of fish, aquatic habitats, and
<br />the natural processes involved, the de-
<br />ve loping ecological approach to fishery
<br />management is, as James Lichatowich
<br />put it, in the most profound sense a
<br />matter of human ailtural change. By
<br />this, I infer we should increasingly ap-
<br />preciate our proper role in the system
<br />and act accordingly. Hannan cultural
<br />change is surelvwhatcancer researcher
<br />Van R. Potter meant by the cultural ad-
<br />aptatinn that he viewed as essential to
<br />our survival, 44'illiam ]orclan, a former
<br />director of the National Marine Fisher-
<br />ies Service, has observed that for better
<br />resource management, changes are
<br />needed in law, philosophy and the way
<br />we live.
<br />WILD TROUT SUCCESS
<br />The ecological approach and human
<br />cultural change are manifest in the
<br />movement toward wild fish manage-
<br />mentpoliciesand programs. Improved
<br />angling quality pia wild trout manage-
<br />ment is famous in Yellowstone National
<br />Park and in IVlontana. Similar things
<br />are happening in other parts of I`orth
<br />Arrrerica where such programs have
<br />been established. Basically, wild fish
<br />greater comprehensiveness can be an
<br />ecosystem approach-protecting rand restoring
<br />whole systems of plants and animals, not just
<br />"target" species. landscape-wide perspective
<br />is in order: ecosystem integrity, diversity, and
<br />ectedness of habitats and food webs.
<br />management consists of just what has
<br />been described above: protecting good
<br />habitat, restoring abused habiatt and
<br />adjusting harvest to levels that wild stooks
<br />can support. It also requires protection
<br />from hatchery fish-a shift in hatchery
<br />programs such that stocking is done
<br />only vv-hen, where and wrath the kinds
<br />anti amounts offish that will not. harm
<br />wild fish populations. ~'4'here we +vant
<br />weld fish in ahundance, this usually
<br />means no stocking-except one-time
<br />reintroductions offish into habitats re-
<br />stored from abuse that has eradicated
<br />wild stocks.
<br />Let's look at an example of trout
<br />rcaource improvement by moderate.
<br />management of people rather than by
<br />direct manipulation of fish populations.
<br />This is the Pennsylvania Fish Commis-
<br />sion's com•ersion ofstreamsfromshort-
<br />terrn "recreation creation" by stocking
<br />hatchery trout to wild trout manage-
<br />mentfor long-term, higher qualit<- an-
<br />gling. The wi ld trout program embraced
<br />(1 j ever increasing protection of stream
<br />and su-e~unside habitat, (2} a halt, after
<br />if}R2, of stocking in streams (or major
<br />AUTUMN 1992 TNOU'r
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