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resources and the forces that change and degrade wetlands arise as a result of the drive for economic growth. Wetland degradation almost always produces a large economic gain for one group in society and a general loss for the society as a whole. This tension between private gains for the landowner and public losses lies behind many wetland conservation issues. The groups who lose when wetlands are degraded are usually weak, poor and unorganized. The groups who degrade wetlands are usually rich, confident and give the impression of being well informed. Whilst the U.S. has freedom of information legislation, this is not true in many other parts of the world. It is often difficult to obtain even hydrometric data let alone detailed plans of dams and irrigation schemes. Cost-benefit analyses of schemes that impact wetlands are usually closely guarded secrets. In many societies, all informa- tion sources can be closed to those who wish to oppose the government policies that will result in wetland loss. Finally, the traditional uses of wetlands and traditional systems of management are insuffi- ciently known and are almost always undervalued. CONTROL AND CONTROLLERS Many pure scientists argue cogently that the systems that control wetland functions are the hydrological cycle and wetland ecosystems. Whilst this is undoubtedly true from a scientific perspective, it is quite untrue when one is concerned with management because this requires action upon the human and the natural systems. Experience in a number of countries reveals that the management systems for wetlands are different in detail in each country. However, there are broad patterns of similarity which are summarised in Figure 1. Any management actions in wetlands must comprehend, understand and seek to manipulate the local version of this diagram. At the heart of the control system are the landowners and ministers of the national government. The landowners do not usually have a free hand to manage their land and water as they please. The ministers do not always speak with one voice because they may represent agriculture, environment, public works or various departments within a devolved regional administration. Central government and regional administrations do not always agree on wetland issues any more than on policy generally. Science is brought to bear in the wetland control system by universities, national environ- mental research organizations, international symposia, national NGOs, etc. This scientific input is normally directed towards the government and its agencies. Figure 1 also shows that landowners are rarely a single distinct group. They may be farmers, fishermen, pastoralists, industrialists, or nature lovers. In some cases nature conservation organizations buy pieces of land in order to influence the management sites. The RSPB (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) owns and manages hundreds of reserves in Britain. ADENA (WWF-Spain) bought a piece of land in the Donana National Park. Through its land- holding, it has secured a seat on the Patronato, the managing board of the park. The complexity of the wetland control system becomes apparent when we consider the third level of detail in Figure 1. The responsibilities of ministries are rarely clear-cut. Environment may have a Department of Nature Conservation whilst Agriculture runs National Parks through its Forestry Department. The Ministry of Agriculture may have an Environment Department of its own and often looks after water resources through divisions for hydrology and hydraulic works. The latter organization can often overlap with the ministry of Public Works. National NGOs do not speak with one voice because they can be as diverse as bird protection, hunting, national WWF, and cultural organizations. University researchers are also of many different disciplines. Coordination and cooperation between them can often be minimal. Consultants are also actors on the wetland stage. They can be national or international in origin and may, in many wetland situations, be divided between the environmental- ists and the traditional engineers. Figure 1 does not link the media and the foreign media to any particular set of groups in the system but their influence can be pervasive and powerful. Foreign involvement in wetland management is apparent in Figure 1 through ambassadors, international NGOs such as WWF, IUCN, IWRB and ICBP (International Council for Bird Preserva- tion), national NGOs in other countries, and international governmental organizations. Many internationally important wetlands have foreign ambassadors as regular visitors and they often promote the cause of wetland conservation through their informal diplomatic contacts. International NGOs work through national NGOs, local research organization, ambassadors, and their own regional coordinators. The RSPB has recently interpreted its charter to protect British birds as meaning that it can work for the protection of species that spend their time in Britain. At present, therefore, it has an active programme of collabor- ation with bird related organizations in, for example, Spain and Greece and it has field projects in operation in Nigeria and Ghana. The international governmental organizations are varied. They range from the UN, UNEP (UN Environ- ment Programme) and UNESCO with its twin arms of NAB (Man and the Biosphere) and the World Heritage Convention to the Ramsar Bureau, international banks, and the EEC. The latter, both within the community of 12 countries and the wider world, has a series of directorate generals such as Science, Environment, Foreign Relations and Development, as well as the European Investment Bank. There are three final boxes within Figure 1 and" these are arguably the most important. The public and children are the ultimate power holders but they are not linked into the wetland system in Figure 1 because they do not generally have real power in many countries. Enlightened conservation groups devote a lot of efforts to mobilizing public opinion, and really far-sighted groups endeavour to educate and inculcate children. In virtually all wetland systems there are particu- 24