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Fall 1997] BIBLIOGRAPHY 901 2. Institutional Considerations Public and private water institutions are an integral part of the appropriation doctrine and today control and distribute most of the surface water in the western states. While the prior appropriation doctrine establishes the allocation rules, institutions supply the water. Because oftheir pivotal development and supply role, institutional arrangements can facilitate or impede transfers. Any analysis of water transfers restrictions must consider these water brokers. Steven Clyde, Legal and Institutional Barriers to Transfers and Reallocation of Water Resources, 29 S.D. L. REv. 232 (1984). Charles Dumars, The State as a Participant in Water Markets: Appropriate Roles for Congress and the Courts, 21 WATER RESOURCES RES. 1771 (1985). M. Gisser & R. Johnson, Institutional Restrictions on the Transfer of Water Rights and the Survival of an Agency, in WATER RIGHTS: SCARCE RESOURCES ALLOCATION, BUREAUCRACY AND THE ENVIRONMENT 137-66 (T. Andersoned., 1983). Richard Howitt, Empirical Analysis of Water Market Institutions: The 1991 California Water Market, 16 RESOURCE & ENERGY ECON. 357(1994). N. THORSON, ANALYSIS OF LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS AFFECTING WATER ALLOCATION AND USE IN NEBRASKA (July, 1982) (University of Nebraska Water Resources Center). Barton Thompson, Institutional Perspectives on Water Policy and Markets, 81 CAL. L. REV. 671 (1993). VII. PUBLIC INTEREST CONSIDERATIONS-THIRD PARTY IMPACTS Since water supports a wide range of private and public uses, water transfers are not simple transactions between buyers and sellers. Indeed, water transfer can cause a variety of adverse economic, social and environmental impacts on the public and third parties. Existing laws, procedures and institutions may not fully protect the public from these impacts. For example, if agricultural land is taken out of production to transfer water to urban areas negative economic and social impacts can occur in the rural area. These may include reductions in farm income, dislocation of farm workers, decreases in property tax revenues, a shrinking local tax base and decline in local services. These negative impacts mayor may not be offset by similar gains in the urban area. The literature on third-party impacts is mostly conceptual. Recent studies indicate that most states subject transfers to public interest reviews but the statutes vary considerably regarding specific criteria used and the weight accorded to each criteria. While some protection exists in these reviews serious questions arise as to the scope of protected interests, the extent of protection and how it should be provided. BAY AREA ECONOMIC FORUM, WATER MARKETING N CALIFORNIA: RESOLVING THIRD-PARTY IMPACT ISSUES, SAN FRANCISCO (1993).