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59 accuracy of information exchange. Personal Computers (PCs) have come into almost universal use, and a large percentage of radio broadcast stations are running on autopilot and are unattended. Also, the Incident Command System has become widely (although not universally) adopted. For decades, the Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES) has provided a well-organized communications backup resource in most communities, and is frequently exercised through Simulated Emergency Tests. At their own expense, volunteer amateur radio operators provide the equipment and expertise needed to rapidly restore or expand critical local and long-distance communications during emergencies. A national movement toward centralized Public Service Answering Points (PSAPs) and a National Emergency Number (9-1-1) changed the way the public called for help. Depending upon jurisdiction, the 9-1-1 center could patch calls through to police and fire dispatchers, or dispatch could come directly from the 9-1-1 center. Many states required telephone companies to impose surcharges on all customers to pay for 9-1-1 service, which ran to millions of dollars. For a long time, customers confused the number 9-1-1 with repair service at 6-1-1, or directory assistance at 4-1-1. One could, however, always dial zero for an operator and get help. Serious limitations exist with the PSAP/9-1-1 system, but to avoid eroding public confidence in this concept, these are often not widely discussed. Limitations include: Wilson The systems were designed for day-to-day emergencies, not disaster response. Both the switching equipment and the human operators/ dispatchers become overloaded during major emergencies, and a form of gridlock occurs during disasters. The public, however, has grown to expect and demand a high level of service and responsiveness from PSAPs, even during major disasters . The systems depend on the normal phone system. If callers can't get dial tones, they can't reach 9-1-1. Emergency line load control protocols sometimes deny dial tones to residential customers during periods of high demand. Also, if phone lines or switching problems exist between the PSAP and the police/fire dispatcher, it is not possible to pass needed information to the dispatcher unless backup radio systems are available. Increasingly, they are not . Often, faster response could be obtained by calling the fire or police station directly, lather than going through the PSAP operator, who then must patch the call to the appropriate dispatcher. .